Turkish book reveals how emerging powers use culture in policy

The idea for professor Mehmet Özkan’s latest book, “The Non-Western World: Foreign Policy Horizons in India, South Africa and Türkiye” (Turkish: “Batı Dışı Dünya: Hindistan, Güney Afrika ve Türkiye’de Dış Politika Ufku”), took shape more than two decades ago during his first experience studying abroad. Confronted with Western-centric narratives that overlooked the complexities of non-Western societies, he set out to write a work that reexamines global foreign policy through the perspectives of Türkiye, India and South Africa.

Drawing on his extensive academic and professional experience across Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Asia and the Americas, Özkan offers various perspectives on how history, culture and identity shape the foreign policies of emerging powers.

When asked about the inspiration behind the book, Özkan recalled that his initial realization of the limitations of Western-centric approaches occurred during his early years abroad. “At that time, I could only recognize the problem,” he said, “but over the years, through experiences in different countries, the idea of writing a book on this topic gradually took shape.” His encounters across continents, combined with decades of academic and professional work, helped him frame a perspective on international relations.

Reflecting on the inspiration behind the book, he explained: “The main reason I wrote this book began around 23 years ago when I first went abroad for education. I felt that the Western approaches we were taught were inadequate in explaining the non-Western world and ourselves. At that time, of course, I only had the chance to recognize the problem, but in the following years, with various experiences in different countries, the idea of writing a book on this topic emerged and shaped the story of the book.”

During the writing process, he recounted a moment that was both challenging and motivating. “I had the chance to discuss the main idea of this book with Peter Bergen, one of the world’s leading sociologists. He told me that writing a book on such a topic would be very difficult and that I might not be able to do it. Some have suggested that such an approach may not be accepted in the literature. But all this negative feedback motivated me even more to write this book. As a result, this book emerged, offering a general framework with a new perspective on the international relations literature.”

“I was always surprised by how Türkiye has large meta-approaches to issues that are either very well known or very little known. India, despite being so powerful, thinks very narrowly, while South Africa, proportionate to its scale but cautious beyond its size, was always an interesting observation for me,” he said.

He reflected further: “Foreign policymaking is as much an individual process as it is institutional. A diplomat’s or decision maker’s historical, sociological and cultural background shapes their mind and redefines their horizons of thought. The result is a foreign policy formed through their guidance, conceptualization, and implementation. In a way, this book is also about the individual who generates ideas on economic and military clichés; by integrating sociology, history, culture and religion, it emphasizes the actor concept for analyzing foreign policy in non-Western countries.”

Why these countries

When asked about the comparative choice of Türkiye, India and South Africa, Özkan explained, “These three countries are key centers from different continents and civilizations outside the West, economically and politically strong and capable of producing alternatives to the international system.”

Özkan also stated, “These countries first try to establish order in their own regions and then respond to systemic demands. They also face unique internal political challenges and, fundamentally, social consolidation issues. Although these countries are on very different continents, the challenges they face are similar, and examining their shared experiences is beneficial. This book emerged from these motivations.”

Addressing how non-Western countries can develop foreign policies without exclusively referencing the West, Özkan noted, “No country can develop foreign policy without referencing the West or engaging with it in some way. But the key is for countries to recognize that they have multiple identities. For example, Türkiye is a country with three identities: part of the West, part of the Islamic world and part of the Turkic world.”

Özkan continued, “Ethnically, Türkiye is part of the Turkic world; culturally and religiously, it is part of the Muslim Islamic world; and in terms of lifestyle and business practices, it is part of the West. Success in foreign policy comes when these three identities are pursued consistently. They cannot be pursued simultaneously, and if one identity is prioritized over the others, there is no chance of success in foreign policy.”

Regarding misconceptions about Türkiye’s foreign policy being Ummah-oriented, Özkan clarified: “I do not consider Türkiye’s foreign policy to be Ummah-oriented. Türkiye is one of the countries that best reflects its multiple identities in foreign policy. Its engagement with problems originating from Muslim regions, its interest in them and its proactive approach are normal and natural. In fact, we should see this as a natural extension of Turkish foreign policy and Türkiye’s national interests. But if one must use a term, we can say it follows an Islamic-sensitive foreign policy.”

Non-Western voices rise

Turning to Africa, Özkan described his conceptual framework of Afro-Christianity: “I developed the concept of Afro-Christianity and applied it as an analytical framework in South African foreign policy. Similarly, in all post-colonial regions and countries where local religions have interacted with Western religions, we can observe such hybrid religious/cultural perspectives. I believe this model can be adapted in all post-colonial countries.”

Özkan reflected on South Africa’s post-Apartheid Africa-centered foreign policy, noting that while it initially faced resistance and was seen as a form of regional hegemony, “after 2020, we can observe a resurgence of Africa-centered perspectives throughout the continent.” He emphasized that non-Western countries can benefit by learning from each other, sharing experiences to build “a more systematic and alternative order against the West.”

Özkan highlighted concepts such as ubuntu and African Christianity as inclusive frameworks for understanding Africa’s diverse realities, adding that leadership shapes foreign policy, with figures like Mandela, Mbeki, Zuma and Ramaphosa playing crucial roles. He also noted a persistent gap between theory and practice, pointing out that “practical developments often surpass theory; intellectuals fall behind in theorizing and guiding practice.”

Regarding Türkiye, he observed that academics are “far behind practice,” with the country now acting as “the voice of the non-West in the West.” Young scholars, he advised, should critically engage with Western concepts and remain grounded in real-world experiences. On broader applicability, he concluded that while Africa’s approach can’t be directly copied elsewhere, a “hybrid, transitional method – rooted in local realities but learning from the African approach” can be effective in regions like the Balkans or the Middle East.

Professor Mehmet Özkan is a Turkish academic and policy expert specializing in international relations. He serves as a professor at the Joint War Institute of the Turkish National Defense University in Istanbul and previously held the position of executive director at the Maarif Foundation U.S. His research focuses on Turkish foreign policy, emerging powers, civil-military relations and the geopolitics of regions such as the Middle East, Africa and Latin America. Professor Özkan has held key positions in academic institutions, think tanks and international organizations and regularly contributes to global media outlets on foreign policy and security issues.